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Other species died out either nationally or regionally , unable to compete or survive environmental disturbances such as ice ages. For example, coconut palms were once found in New Zealand, and kauri, now confined to the north of the North Island, used to grow as far south as Canterbury. Over the years, the earliest inhabitants were joined by other plants and animals carried across the oceans by wind and current.
The pre-human community was notable for the absence of snakes, land mammals apart from three species of bat and many of the flowering plant families. Whole orders and families were found only in New Zealand, including tuatara, moa and kiwi, all of the native lizards, and nearly species of native earthworms. Many remarkable plants, insects and birds evolved to fill ecological niches normally occupied by mammals. Others diversified to fill new territories created by sea-level fluctuations and land uplift. With no mammalian predators on the ground, but avian predators everywhere, flightlessness was not a handicap, nor was size.
Flightless insects are numerous, including many large beetles and 70 or so species of the cricket-like weta, found only in New Zealand. New Zealand, with 84 species, has the most diverse seabird fauna of any country. Nearly half of all native bird species depend on the ocean for food, the feeding zones of some extending as far south as the Antarctic continent.
New Zealand's extensive coastline and many islands offer a huge range of habitat, from estuary and mud-flat, to rocky cliffs and boulder bank. The ocean itself is marvellously rich. There are about different marine fish in the waters around New Zealand, as well as various species of seals, dolphins and porpoises.
Twenty-nine species of whale have been recorded, and three of the largest sperm, humpback and right regularly migrate to New Zealand waters in spring and autumn. The most widespread and complex type of forest in New Zealand is a podocarp conifer broadleaf association. It is generally found at lower altitudes and is characterised by a variety of species, a stratified canopy and an abundance of vines and epiphytic plants.
Beech and kauri forests, by contrast, are much simpler in structure. New Zealand's beech species have close relatives in Australia and South America and the five different types of species in New Zealand have exploited habitats from valley floor to mountain tops. Kauri, true forest giants, dominate only in the warmer climes to the north.
Some of the most specialised plants are those occupying the alpine zone. A remarkable 25 percent of all New Zealand's plants can be found above the treeline. Ninety-three percent of all alpine plants are found only in New Zealand, compared with 80 percent for the rest of the higher plant species. Snow tussock herbfields are one of the most distinctive elements in this cold, windswept environment. Remarkably long-lived, some larger specimens may be several centuries old. Like beech trees, they seed infrequently, but in profusion.
This specialisation, and the adaptations which make New Zealand's wildlife so unique, render them extremely vulnerable to introduced predators, such as rats and cats; competitors, such as deer and possums; and loss of habitat. The arrival of people in New Zealand heralded times of rapid change.
Introduction intentionally or accidentally of exotic plants and animals, and the modification of habitat, radically affected native species populations. In the much shorter post period of European settlement, the forest area was further reduced to around 25 percent of the land, nine more bird species became extinct and many more were threatened.
Since , more than 80 new species of mammals, birds and fish, and more than 1, plant species have been introduced, in many places totally changing the landscape and ecology. One uniform time is kept throughout mainland New Zealand.
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Time kept in the Chatham Islands is 45 minutes ahead of that kept in New Zealand. Before , the second was defined in terms of the rotation of the earth. Since then, atomic clocks have been the basis of International Time. Time scales provided by these clocks are vital to modern life, for example, to maintain the exact frequencies required for transmission of telephone, television and radio data.
These are seconds added to keep the apparent position of the sun in the sky, our normal concept of day, in line with atomic time.
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Since , 22 leap seconds have been added, with the last occurring on 1 January Leap seconds are usually inserted during the last minute of either July or December. By making this minute 61 seconds long, the effect of a slowing of the earth's rotation is compensated. If additional seconds were not added, it would be dark at midday in around 50, years.
The hourly radio time pips broadcast by Radio New Zealand, controlled by three atomic clocks, sound seven times instead of the usual six. Because the leap seconds must occur at the same time all around the world, leap seconds are added at Coordinated Universal Time.
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This means they are added at either am New Zealand Standard Time or at pm if daylight saving is being observed. The Earl of Ranfurly on grey horse , Governor of New Zealand from to , rests with his party at a kainga on the Huia-rau Trail from Waikaremoana to Ruatoki in They arrived - whether initially by accident or design is unclear - in waka canoes blown across the subtropics by prevailing north-east winds.
The settlers soon lost contact with their home islands and were forced to adapt to Aotearoa's more challenging physical environment. Annual cultivation of kumara sweet potatoes - a perennial crop in the tropics - was possible in the north through the underground winter storage of tubers. Birds, fish and small animals were caught and the resources of forests and oceans gathered.
Large moa flightless birds similar to emu , numerous in Te Wai Pounamu the South Island , were eventually hunted to extinction. Fires lit to flush them out removed much of the forest east of the Southern Alps, and climatic changes made horticulture more difficult. While land belonged to large groups, smaller groups had rights to use specific areas and resources. Tapu was regulated by tohunga experts , who mediated spiritual forces, retained tribal history and knowledge, and had expertise in carving, tattooing and canoe building.
Tribal groups interacted through both trade and warfare. Information was also exchanged among tribes. Travel was by waka, or on foot along beaches, riverbeds and ridges. There were footpaths in more densely populated areas, and tracks through forests. One consequence of the slowness of travel was that even large iwi were unable to permanently conquer extensive areas.
Instead, low-level warfare became endemic. Competition for mana status was complemented by competition for increasingly scarce land and resources. The concept of utu reciprocity generally ensured that at least one party to a dispute felt justified in maintaining it. Fighting usually occurred seasonally to fit in with cycles of subsistence.
Most taua raiding parties made small-scale attacks, which caused few casualties. Sometimes, however, iwi were displaced into less desirable areas by military defeat or economic pressures. But many regions were occupied by the same descent group for long periods. Hunting and trapping had declined as population density increased; fish and shellfish now complemented crops.
Some iwi now numbered many thousands, but Te Wai Pounamu remained sparsely populated.
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This was similar to that of Europeans in the 17th century. While this experience discouraged other Europeans from following in his wake, the name of a Dutch province Zeeland was given to a jagged line on maps of the Pacific. In , two European expeditions visited Aotearoa. The arrival two months earlier of the English explorer James Cook, on a voyage with both scientific and economic goals, had enduring consequences. Cook led two further expeditions which visited Aotearoa in the course of systematic exploration of the South Pacific.
Following establishment of a penal colony at Sydney in , New Zealand became an economic offshoot of New South Wales. Whaling and shore-based sealing began in the s. Fired in sufficient numbers, they generated enough terror to enable enemies who lacked them to be routed by traditional means. Other iwi exploited temporary leads in local arms races, in some cases using sailing ships to launch surprise attacks.
Thousands were killed or enslaved, and tens of thousands displaced, provoking enduring disputes about land rights. Regular contact with Europeans had other negative consequences. Desired products could be purchased only through debilitating labour, often in unhealthy environments.
Literate slaves acquired status, while the mana of illiterate chiefs fell. Knowledge, previously held in common or tied to specific roles, could now be possessed and communicated by anyone. Introduced animals and crops enabled improved diets. Humanitarian concerns in Britain were eased by the signing of an agreement with some chiefs. Three main waves of settlers arrived in the next half-century. A sixth was the most important: Auckland became the seat of government in Communication among them was by ship, and irregular - most had more frequent contact with Sydney than with each other. Racial tolerance was soon strained.
The New Zealand Company had purchased land hastily and with scant regard for actual ownership. Rumoured and actual wars in the s were followed by a largely effective boycott of land sales from On his return in , he employed more direct methods of establishing control. A war over land in Taranaki in had ended in stalemate.
A 14,strong army fought its way up the Waikato River in against strong resistance. The strongest threat was posed by Titokowaru, who won several battles in southern Taranaki in before internal dissension lost him his army. The second wave of immigration had begun in after the discovery of gold in Central Otago.